A universal guide for China studies

Chinese Literature - Historiography

Encoding: Unicode (UTF-8) [Location: HOME > Literature > Historical critics > Shitong][bottom]


Shitong 史通 "All about Historiography" by Liu Zhiji 劉知幾

Literature by A to Z
Literature by time
Literature by theme
Literature by the 4 Categories
Liu Zhiji 劉知幾 (d. 721) was the first historian of China who wrote about historiography. His book Shitong describes the general pattern of the official dynastic historiography that was in use since the Western Han Dynasty. He develops standards, but he also criticizes the styles and composition techniques of older historians.
The chapters are:
Neipian 內篇 Inner Chapters
1. Liujia 六家 The six historiographical traditions
2. Erti 二體 The two historiographical patterns
3. Zaiyan 載言 Recording words
4. Benji 本紀 Imperial biographies
5. Shijia 世家 Biographies of eminent houses and people
6. Liezhuan 列傳 Normal (collective) biographies
7. Biaoli 表歷 Chronological tables
8. Shuzhi 書志 Monographies and tractates
9. Lunzan 論贊 Discussions and praises
10. Xuli 序例 Prefaces and introductions
11. Timu 提目
12. Duanxian 斷限
13. Bianci 編次 The orderly sequence
14. Chengwei 稱謂 Terms and names
15. Caizhuan 採撰 Selection and composition
16. Zaiwen 載文 Recording documents
17. Buzhu 補注 Supplements and commentaries
18. Yinxi 因習
19. Yili 邑里 Localities and distances
20. Yanyu 言語 Words and speeches
21. Fuci 浮詞
22. Xushi 敘事
23. Pinzao 品藻
24. Zhishu 直書
25. Qubi 曲筆
26. Jianshi 鑒識
27. Tanze 探賾
28. Moni 摸擬 Mutual dependence and intertwining
29. Shushi 書事
30. Renwu 人物 Personalities
31. Hecai 覈才
32. Xuzhuan 序傳
33. Fanxing 煩省 Overcharging and abbreviation
34. Zashu 雜述 Miscellaneous descriptions
35. Bianzhi 辨職
36. Zixu 自敘 Autobiographies

Waipian 外篇 Outer Chapters:
1. Shiguan Jianzhi 史官建置 The office of the historiographer
2. Gujin Zhengshi 古今正史 The standard official histories in old and new times
3. Yigu 疑古 Doubting antiquity
4. Huojing 惑經 Questioning the canonical books
5. Shenzuo 申左
6. Dianfan 點煩
7.-9. Zashuo 雜說 Miscellaneous treatises
10.-11. Wuxingzhi 五行志 About the Five Phases chapter
12. Anhuo 暗惑
13. Wushi 忤時
6.列傳
夫紀傳之興,肇於史漢。蓋紀者,編年也。傳者,列事也。 編年者,歷帝王之歲月,猶春秋之經。列事者,錄人臣之行狀,猶春秋之傳。春秋則傳以解經,史漢傳以釋紀。 尋茲例草創。如項王宜傳,而以本紀為名。非唯羽之僭盜不可同於天子。且推其序事,皆作傳言。求謂之紀,不可得也。 夫紀傳之不同,猶詩賦之有別,而後來繼作,亦多所未詳。案范曄漢書,紀后妃六宮。其實傳也,而謂之為紀。陳壽國志載孫劉二帝。其實紀也,而呼之曰傳。 考數家之所作,其未達紀傳之情乎。
Ordinary Biographies
The historiographical style of imperial "arranged" biographies (ji) and ordinary "down-handed" biographies (zhuan) was first used for the Records of the Great Historian (Shiji) and the Book of Han (Hanshu). "To arrange" means, to tie years together (bian nian). "To hand down" means, to collect events in a line. "Tieing years together" means, to put the years and months of an emperor's or a king's rule in calendrical order, like it is done in the Classic Spring and Autumn Annals (Chunqiu jing). "To collect events in a line" means, to report deeds and conducts of ordinary persons and ministers, like it is done in the Spring and Autumn Tradition of Zuo (Zuozhuan; often seen as a commentary to the Spring and Autumn annals). The Spring and Autumn annals have commentaries (zhuan) to explain the Classic (jing), and likewise the Shiji and Hanshu have ordinary biographies (zhuan) to interpret the imperial biographies (ji).
Inquiring the writings according to these rules, one will find that they are not followed very well... For instance, for the hegemonial king Xiang Yu, an ordinary biography would suit better, although his biography was entitled as imperial biography. It was not right to list him, an usurper of the throne, side by side with the Sons of Heaven. He should better be put in the right place and overall made an ordinary biography. Seeking to make him an imperial biography, was not right...
The difference between imperial and ordinary biographies is the same kind of distinction as that of rhapsodies and regular poems. But later, people continued to disrespect this difference, like Fan Ye when he wrote the History of (Later) Han (Hou Han shu). he wrote a collective biography for the imperial consorts, but what actually should be an ordinary biography, he called an imperial biography. Chen Shou, recording the reigns of the emperors Sun (of Wu) and Liu (of Shu) in the Records of the Three Kingdoms, what actually should be imperial biographies, he called ordinary biographies. Examining what numerous scholars have written, we see that they barely employ the real character of imperial and ordinary biographies.
[HOME][top]